International Journal of Nursing Studies Advances
Experiences of nurses and midwives in policy development in low- and middle-income countries: Qualitative systematic review
Abstract
Background
Nurses provide 90% of health care worldwide, yet little is known of the experiences of nurses and midwives in policy development in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).
Objective
To identify, appraise and synthesize the qualitative evidence on the experiences of nurses’ and midwives’ involvement in policy development LMICs.
Design
A qualitative systematic review using modified Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology.
Setting
Low and middle-income countries.
Participants
Nurses’ and midwives’ involved in policy development, implementation, and/or evaluation.
Methods
A systematic search was undertaken across nine databases to retrieve published studies in English between inception and April of 2021. Screening, critical appraisal, and data extraction was undertaken by two independent reviewers.
Results
Ten articles met inclusion criteria. All studies were published between 2000 to 2021 from a variety of LMICs. The studies were medium to high quality (70–100% critical appraisal scores). Four major themes were identified related to policy development: 1) Marginal representation of nurses; 2) Determinants of nurses’ involvement (including at the individual, organization, and systematic level); 3) Leadership as a pathway to involvement; 4) Promoting nurses’ involvement.
Conclusion
All studies demonstrated that nurses and nurse midwives continue to be minimally involved in policy development. Findings reveal reasons for nurses’ limited involvement and strategies to foster sustained engagement of nurses in policy development in LMICs. To enhance their involvement in policy development in LMICs, change is needed at multiple levels. Systemic power relations need to be reconstructed to facilitate more collaborative interdisciplinary practices with nurses co-leading and co-developing health care policies.
Keywords
1. Introduction
Nurses are the largest group of health care workers in the global workforce, delivering 90% of healthcare worldwide (Bryar et al., 2011). Worldwide, nursing also makes up the largest health sector occupational group at 59%, which is approximately 27.9 million nurses (World Health Organization, 2020). Despite making up such a large percentage of the health workforce, little is known of the experiences of nurses and midwives in policy development. Policy is essential in healthcare to ensure the well-being of the public and can occur at the international, national, or local level (World Health Organization, 2021). Correspondingly, policy development and the resulting implementation requires involvement of all healthcare providers. Policy involvement can include participation in policy development processes such as identifying, creating, implementing, evaluating, and modifying.
It is well documented that nurses are knowledgeable about quality and equity of care issues and are well qualified to inform policy, yet they are often not involved (Mill et al., 2014). Moreover, in recent years the need for greater policy involvement amongst nurses and midwives has been recognized for health policy and system reform (World Health Organization, 2020). One of the ten key actions outlined by the World Health Organization (2020) in the State of the World's Nursing was ensuring that nurses are involved in policy decisions with a focus on leadership development for nurses to make this happen. In most countries, nurses and midwives comprise the majority of health personnel, especially in low middle-income countries (LMICs), with closest proximity to patients across all health providers (Wirth, 2008). Thus, the engagement of nurses and midwives in policy development is critical in LMICs where they represent the majority of the health workforce (Juma et al., 2014).
To understand the current process of engaging nurses and midwives in policy development and determining the scope and effectiveness of work in this field requires a systematic examination of existing studies. It is particularly important to examine the prior experiences of nurses and midwives’ involvement in policy development in LMICs where they are often the main service providers in rural areas.
There is currently no known systematic review of the experiences of nurses and midwives in policy development in this context. Specifically, exploration of the role of nurses and midwives in policy development in the context of LMICs, especially African countries, has been lacking (Richter et al., 2013). Therefore, this qualitative systematic review seeks to synthesize the experiences of nurses and midwives’ involvement in policy development in LMICs to identify the gaps, the mitigating factors, precursors, and challenges. By doing so, it will be possible to identify current gaps and opportunities to include nurses and midwives in policy development in LMICs moving forward. While the issue of nurses and midwives involved in policy development are universal, the context of healthcare is different in LMICs and High Income Countries (HICs). Therefore, a decision was made to focus on LMICS for this review while recognizing the potential to scale up later to HICs.
2. Aim
The aim of this qualitative systematic review was to identify, appraise and synthesize the qualitative evidence on the experiences of nurses’ and midwives’ involvement in policy development in LMICs. In embarking on this systematic review, the goal was to answer the question: “What are the experiences of registered nurses (RN) and registered midwives (RM) in policy development in LMICs?”
3. Methods and study design
For this review, a modified Jonna Briggs Institute (JBI) qualitative systematic review approach was carried out (Lockwood et al., 2015). While the article screening, quality appraisal and data extraction was guided by the JBI systematic review process as outlined in our original published protocol (Etowa et al., 2016), thematic synthesis methodology was used to synthesize the extracted data (Thomas and Harden, 2008). This approach deviates from the protocol (Etowa et al., 2016) which stated that aggregation would occur through assembling the findings rated according to their quality, and categorizing these findings on the basis of similarity in meaning but is similarly designed to synthesize the findings to generate themes and identify future practice implementations (Butler et al., 2016) as the goal of this review was to meta aggregate the findings and provide recommendations for practice and policy.
3.1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria
3.1.1. Types of participants
The systematic review considered studies that include either nurses or midwives or both with any length of practice who are registered and licensed to practice nursing and/or midwifery by an accredited and authoritative organization, regardless of age, gender, or cultural identity. They must have also been involved in policy development in any capacity in or for LMICs. The guidance for categorizing LMICs was defined and listed by the World Bank Group which includes 138 countries (World Bank Group, 2020).
3.1.2. Phenomena of interest
The phenomena of interest for this review were the experiences of nurses and midwives in their involvement in policy development in and for LMICs. Examples of involvement in policy development included but were not limited to planning, partnership, collaboration, consulting, decision-making, strategy or policy formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation.
3.1.3. Context
This review considered qualitative studies that explored the experiences of nurses’ and midwives’ involvement in areas or settings in which policy development, formulation, implementation, or evaluation takes place in and about LMICs. Examples included healthcare delivery settings, professional and government organizations, academic institutions, hospitals, clinics, communities, and local, jurisdictional, or national levels of policy decision making.
3.1.4. Types of studies
The current review considered English language studies using qualitative data including, but not limited to, designs such as phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, action research, case studies and feminist research. In the absence of research studies, other texts such as opinion papers and reports were considered. As this was an unfunded study, securing translation costs was not feasible and thus, an English language limit was necessary.
3.2. Search strategy
A three-step search strategy was utilized in this review. An initial limited search of CINAHL and MEDLINE was undertaken followed by an analysis of the text words contained in the title and abstract, and of the index terms used to describe each article. A second search using all identified keywords and index terms was then undertaken across all included databases, from database inception to the date of the search. Thirdly, the reference lists of all identified reports and articles were searched for additional studies. The search was conducted in December of 2019 and updated in April of 2021. Databases searched were: Medline (Ovid), Embase (Elsevier), CINAHL (EBSCO), APA PsycInfo (EBSCO), Sociological Abstracts (ProQuest), Social Services Abstracts (ProQuest), Anthrosource (American Anthropological Association), Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (Cochrane Library), and Web of Science (Clarivate Analytics). The complete search strategies are included as Appendix 1.
3.3. Selection and quality assessment
The articles that met the inclusion criteria were assessed for quality using JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist for Qualitative Research tool (Lockwood et al., 2015) by two independent reviewers. The authors worked in pairs and any disagreements were resolved with open dialogue and with the assistance of a third reviewer when needed. All articles were included regardless of quality assessment. The quality appraisal checklist of selected articles is provided in Appendix 2 - Table S1.
3.4. Data extraction
Qualitative data from papers included in the review were extracted by two independent reviewers and by using the standardized data extraction tool from JBI-QARI. No textual data was included so use of the JBI-NOTARI tool was not necessary. The data extracted included specific details about the phenomena of interest, populations, study methods, and outcomes of significance to the review question and specific objectives.
3.5. Data synthesis
The first author (JE) created a summary and narrative table with the second author (AV) reviewing the table for accuracy. Table 1 identifies the author(s), year, country of publication, and setting(s); aim; sample and sample characteristics; study design; data collection, analysis, and synthesis methods; and major findings. For data synthesis, the thematic synthesis process as outlined by Thomas & Harden (2008) guided the process of data meta-aggregation and synthesis to find recurring themes in the selected studies. Following the standard approach, the following three stages were used in the thematic synthesis which follows the process of the coding of text 'line-by-line', developing 'descriptive themes', and finally, generating 'analytical themes' (Thomas and Harden, 2008). This approach was conducted by two authors whereby they: (1) generated initial codes from the selected studies, (2) identified relevant descriptive themes from the codes based on similarity of topics, and (3) abstracted and review themes to generate overarching analytical themes. This process was done individually for each study twice whereby each author developed codes and aggregated analytical themes independently. This approach was done to ensure methodological rigour. Then, the authors reviewed each other's work and discussed both the identified codes and themes to reach consensus. The development of descriptive themes remains limited to the primary studies identified through the search, the analytical themes occur as an interpretation whereby the authors 'go beyond' the included primary studies to generate new, larger interpretive constructs, explanations, or hypotheses using primary studies and existing knowledge.
Table 1. Summary of included studies.
Author (s) (Year) Country | Purpose | Phenomena of Interest | Methodology Sample size Types of participants | Data Collection Method(s) Data Analysis Method(s) | Findings as stated by the authors |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Arries (2006) South Africa |
To formulate practice standards for quality clinical decision making in nursing | Nursing standards for quality clinical decision-making Clinical decision making standards of practice |
Qualitative descriptive Sample size not identified Clinical nurse practitioners, nurse educators, doctors, nurse managers |
Focus group interviews, individual interviews Logic of deductive and inductive inference |
The nurse formulates an appropriate individualized plan of care that prescribes strategies and alternatives to attain written expected outcomes and objectives. The plan of care relates to the health needs and problems of the individual, group or community. Documented evidence about the expected outcomes of the care plan can be identified. The plan incorporates specific health outcomes for the individual or group or the special needs or problems of the community. |
Assegaai and Schneider (2019) South Africa |
To explore and describe approaches to supportive supervision in policy and programme guidelines and how these are implemented in supervision practices in the North West Province, an early adopter of the ward-based PHC outreach team strategy | Supportive supervision in policy and program guidelines and how these are implemented in supervision practices in the North West Province, with CBOW (Community based outreach workers) consisting of Community health workers (CHW) and one nurse leader | Qualitative descriptive N = 40 7 facility managers, 12 team leaders, and 18 community health workers |
Semi-structures focus group discussions Thematic content analysis |
The documents reviewed provide considerable detail on the management functions of supervision, but much less on development and support, the two other crucial pillars of supportive supervision. All the documents acknowledge the need for supervision and outline basic reporting lines. Neither the Toolkit nor the Policy spells out a comprehensive approach to supervision, support and line authority functions. Rather, decision-making is delegated to sub-national levels. There is no standalone, overarching and coherent framework or document for the supervision of CHWs and WBOTs. Moreover, most of the documentation, which exists, although widely available and referenced, has uncertain status. |
Asuquo (2019) Nigeria |
To evaluates nurses' leadership in research and policy formulation in southern Nigeria | Nursing leadership in research and policy development | Case Studies N = 12 12 nurse leaders |
In‐depth interview and focus group discussion Coding and categorizing data into themes |
Leadership imperviousness theme explains marginal nurses contribution to policy arena The major role of nurse leaders is affiliated with policy implementation rather than involvement in policy formulation Individual and institutional barriers such as lack of nursing school training are identified |
Buys and Muller (2000) South Africa |
To explore and describe the experiences and perceptions of the nursing service managers regarding transformation of health services in selected Provincial Academic Health Complexes | Nurse managers experiences and perceptions of the restructuring of health services at individual group departmental and organizational level, which involve new policies Transformation of health services in selected provincial academic health complexes |
Phenomenology N = 34 34 nurse service managers (2 deputy directors, 8 assistant directors, and 24 chief professionals) |
Focus group interviews Content analysis |
Nurse services managers experienced both positive and negative impacts due to transformation of health services on both management levels and quality of patient care The whole transformation is top-down Nursing service managers expressed negative feelings due to an increased workload, poor salaries, inadequate recognition, communication, and resources, and insufficient participation in decision making A two-way communication is vital for an effective healthcare transformation |
Hajizadeh et al. (2021) Iran |
To explore the barriers and facilitators concerning nurse managers’ participation in the health policy-making process | Nurse managers and key informants involvement in health policy-making process | Qualitative descriptive N = 16 9 nurse managers, 3 government officials, and 4 faculty members in the field of nursing ad health policy |
Semi-structures one-on-one interviews Thematic analysis |
Barriers of nurse leaders’ involvement in policy include nurse managers’ characteristics, organizational structure, and external/environmental barriers such as workload, negative nurses’ image, lack of transparency etc. Cooperation and collaboration with the upstream managers, enhanced team activity, nursing school and hospital nurses, and access to vital government officials can enhance nurses policy making involvement |
Juma et al. (2014) Kenya |
To critically examine how nurses have been involved in national policy processes in the Kenyan health sector | Nurses involvement in national policy development processes | Feminist N = 32 7 nurse leaders, 16 frontline nurses and managers, 9 non-nursing decision makers |
Open-ended Interviews Content Analysis |
Limited involvement of nurses in policy processes in Kenya Hierarchical and structures, and professional issues were primary barriers involvement of nurses in policy processes. |
Kemp et al. (2018) Uganda |
To describe the development of a national standard for midwifery mentorship in Uganda, part of a wider project which aimed to develop a model of mentorship for Ugandan midwifery using the principles of action research | Development of a national standard for midwifery model of mentorship | Action Research Sample size not identified Midwives |
Focus groups Data analysis method not identified |
Midwifery twinning can enhance positive changes in leadership development if carefully matched. |
Kwartemaa-Acheampong et al. (2021) Ghana |
To explore nurse and midwives participation in policy development, reviews and reforms in Ghana | Nurse and midwives involvement in policy development and reform | Qualitative descriptive N = 30 15 general nurses and 15 midwives In leadership positions Purposeful sampling |
In-depth individual interviews Data saturation Content analysis |
Nurses are either overlooked or unacknowledged when they are involved General perception that nurses are not knowledgeable about policy Recruitment into nursing education with politicians’ involvement results in unqualified candidates into the profession Involvement would improve health delivery |
Makhuvha et al. (2007) South Africa |
To explore and describe the experiences of nurse educators with regard to the rationalisation of nursing education and to use information obtained to describe guidelines for the effective rationalisation of a nursing college in the Limpopo Province | Rationalization of Policy Makers and educators in nursing education | Qualitative descriptive N = 10 10 nurse educators |
In-depth individual interviews Tesch's method |
Nurse educators expressed dissatisfaction with regard to the rationalization of nursing education as regards administrative, operational, and human dimensions. In their view, the centralization of tasks delays service delivery which negatively impacts on management and create confusion. Nurse educators expressed the need for proper planning which involves active participation and maintenance of professional standards |
Richter et al. (2013) Jamaica Kenya Uganda South Africa |
The influence of workplace policies on nursing care for individuals and families living with human immunodeficiency virus. This article aims to present findings related to the barriers and facilitators for nurse engagement in policy development and implementation | Nurse engagement in policy development and implementation Nurses engagement in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) policy development |
Action research N = 51 (Jamaica −10, Kenya – 17, Uganda – 12, South Africa – 12) Unit managers, clinic and healthcare managers, and senior nurse officer |
Interviews, focus groups, surveys and document analysis Thematic analysis |
Nurses expressed a lack of communication of the available policies at the grassroot levels and also a lack of involvement in the development of policies. There is an urgent need for policies surrounding AIDS care. |
4. Findings
4.1. Characteristics
The search strategy identified initially 5382 articles, excluding duplicates removed automatically in Covidence. In total, 5316 studies were excluded at title/abstract screening and 56 at full-text screening. This left ten articles that met inclusion criteria (Table 2). All studies were published between 2000 to 2021. The countries represented by the articles include Ghana, Jordan, Kenya, South Africa, Nigeria, Uganda, Jamaica, and Iran. Articles from South Africa were highly represented with five out of selected publications, whereas Ghana, Jordan, Iran and Nigeria were only represented once. All studies were conducted with participants from one country except for Ritcher et al. (2013) which included participants from four countries (Jamaica, Kenya, Uganda, and South Africa). The methodologies used across all of the selected citations include action research, phenomenology, qualitative descriptive, feminist, and case studies. Two of the included articles did not identify the sample size. All studies included nurses except for Kemp et al. (2018) where the focus of this study was midwives and Kwartemaa-Acheampong et al. (2021) which included both nurses and midwives. All other studies were on nurses in general. Of note, while most midwives are also nurses in LMICs, there is a small population of healthcare providers who are only midwives.
Table 2. Summary of review findings.
Main themes | Code in the texts |
---|---|
Marginal representation of nurses in policy development | Nurses and midwives feel they are overlooked and unacknowledged (Acheampong et al., 2021) Top down approach, nurses not involved at a national level (Juma et al., 2014) Nurses employed at lower levels of Kenyan health care system (Juma et al., 2014) Lack of knowledge and skills in policy making; nursing curriculums lacking the inclusion of advocacy and political skills (Juma et al., 2014) Culture of nursing and hierarchical system (Juma et al., 2014) Nurses as policy data collectors and implementers than policy makers (Asuquo, 2019; Juma et al., 2014) Negative feelings due to transformation of provincial health services (Buys and Muller, 2000) Fear from upstream managers (Hajizadeh et al., 2021) |
Determinants of nurses involvement in policy development | Individual factors such as blaming, feeling of being inferior to other health professionals, resistant to change, and uninterested (Acheampong et al., 2021; Asuquo, 2019; Juma et al., 2014) Discouragement for critical thinking and always waiting for higher up positions to make decisions (Juma et al., 2014) Organizational factors such as weakness in academic training, fear of losing job (Hajizadeh et al., 2021) Nurse leaders’ minimal authority, conservative approach of nursing, top down decision making (Hajizadeh et al., 2021) Lack of transparency, negative image of nursing (Hajizadeh et al., 2021) Physician dominated health care system (Acheampong et al., 2021; Asuquo, 2019; Hajizadeh et al., 2021; Juma et al., 2014) Limited nurses’ representation in leadership and institutional grants compared to physicians (Asuquo, 2019; Juma et al., 2014) |
Leadership as a pathway to involvement in policy development | Mentorship for leadership roles (Hajizadeh et al., 2021) Access to government officials (Hajizadeh et al., 2021) Creation of policy-making participation opportunities (Hajizadeh et al., 2021; Kemp et al., 2018) Clear supervision framework (Arries, 2006; Assegaai and Schneider, 2019; Hajizadeh et al., 2021) Enhancing the culture of participatory management with an active role in decision making (Hajizadeh et al., 2021) Trust in between policy makers and nurses (Hajizadeh et al., 2021) |
Promoting nurses and midwives’ involvement in policy development | Generating nursing evidence with the capacity of policy making at national levels (Juma et al., 2014) Creation of opportunities that can enhance skills for policy development positions (Juma et al., 2014) Empowerment of nurses with skills of assertiveness and problem solving (Makhuvha et al., 2007) Consulting frontline workers for bottom-up approach and a two way communication (Buys and Muller, 2000; Juma et al., 2014; Richter et al., 2013) Involvement of midwives via workshops (Kemp et al., 2018) Equity in the distribution of recourses for nurses as like for physicians (Hajizadeh et al., 2021) Nursing curriculum offering skills and knowledge on health policy politics (Hajizadeh et al., 2021; Juma et al., 2014) Collaboration in between hospital nurses and academic institutions (Hajizadeh et al., 2021) Encouragement for team activity and shared goal (Hajizadeh et al., 2021) |
In terms of critical appraisal, studies were generally appraised to be of high quality, ranging from 70% to 100% in terms of quality. The areas that tended to score the lowest were around whether the researcher(s) situated themselves culturally or theoretically and whether the influence of the researcher on the research, and vice- versa, were addressed.
Data extraction, synthesis and meta- aggregation of these articles resulted in four major themes and their subthemes: 1) Marginal representation; 2) Determinants of Involvement; 3) Leadership as a pathway; and 4) Promoting Nurses’ Involvement. These four themes and their sub themes are used as the organizing framework of the findings section of this manuscript.
4.2. Theme 1: Marginal representation of nurses in policy development
This major theme refers to the limited level of involvement of nurses in policy development including the perception of excluding nurses and midwives in policy formulation work at multiple levels: individual, institutional, and systemic level. For example, they are often perceived to be absent at the national level and often were more engaged as policy implementers and not policy makers especially at the frontlines of healthcare. This theme was identified in five reports.
In a study in Kenya, nurses acknowledged that they were inadequately involved in national policy development due to the top-down approach where nurses had fewer opportunities and were mostly excluded and marginalized at a national level (Juma et al., 2014). This also aligned with the reality that nurses were employed at lower levels of the Kenyan health care system but not at higher levels (Juma et al., 2014). Further, Kenyan nurses also felt that they required comprehension and abilities to be involved in the policy-making process; this was primarily because of the nursing curriculum failing to include advocacy and political skills that are essential to impact policies within the healthcare system (Juma et al., 2014). This is also reflected in the culture of nursing in Kenya which reinforces the minimal role of nurses engagement in policy development due the established hierarchical system (Juma et al., 2014). Some participants commented that nurses are “allergic to change” and mostly rely on higher positions to make decisions due to “self-imposed mind block” (Juma et al., 2014, p. 5).
Similarly, Asuquo (2019) conducted a study in Nigeria looking at nurses’ leadership in the development of policy and found that nurses’ leadership in health system policy is perceived to be a falsehood primarily due to nurses always being the implementers rather than the policy makers. The nurse leaders in this study indicated that nurses’ leadership in policy is a “no go area” where their participation is not demanded and their absence not noticed unlike their physician counterparts (Asuquo, 2019). Nigerian nurses also expressed marginal representation in knowledge creation via research in either independent or collaborative studies (Asuquo, 2019). Although involved in state level research projects, nurses expressed participation was limited to being data collectors and not research designers and investigators (Asuquo, 2019).
The marginal representation of nurses in policy development has impact on their work morale especially those in managerial roles. In Buys and Muller's (2000) study of nursing service managers’ experiences of the transformation of provincial health services, nurse managers expressed feelings of “anger, fear, uncertainty, powerlessness, and low morale” as a result of their lack of participation in policy development and the new changes in provincial health services management policies (Buys and Muller, 2000, p. 52). The new changes were often accompanied with lack of communication, higher workload, poor monetary compensation, inadequate recognition and resources, and lack of involvement of nurse managers in the decision making, which further intensified their unhappiness and dissatisfaction. Nurses also expressed fears of receiving unwanted reactions from upstream managers when they expressed their desire to participate in the policy making process (Hajizadeh et al., 2021). Nurses and midwives also felt overlooked and unacknowledged (Acheampong et al., 2021). This lack of voice at the policy making tables can further lead to lack of interest, limited participation, and marginal representation of nurses and midwives in policy making (Asuquo, 2019).
4.3. Theme 2: Determinants of nurses’ involvement in policy development
This main theme refers to factors that influence the perceived ability of nurses and midwives to be engaged in policy formulation activities and has two sub-themes related to (a) individual factors and (b) organizational and systemic factors. At the individual level, nurses feel that they do not receive sufficient training in policy development and are often perceived and blamed for being complacent and disinterested. At the organization and systematic level, the existing hierarchy in healthcare, with nurses often on the bottom, result in perceived barriers to involvement in policy development. This theme was identified in four studies.
4.4. Sub-theme 2.1 Individual factors
Individual nurses and midwives often felt blamed for not being involved in the policy development without considerations of institutional and systemic level issues that may have impacted on their ability to participate in policy development work. This leads to nurses and midwives being erroneously viewed as being resistant to change and content with their subservient role of taking orders from other professionals above them in the hierarchical ladder of the health system (e.g. physicians) rather than being able to contribute knowledge that could facilitate collaboration (Acheampong et al., 2021; Asuquo, 2019; Juma et al., 2014). They also pointed to the need for multi-level mentorship of existing nurse leaders as an imperative to create the needed changes in nurses and midwives’ equitable involvement in health and healthcare research.
4.5. Sub-theme 2.2 Organizational and systemic factors
Organizational and systemic level issues are another set of factors that influence nurses’ involvement in policy development. Hajizadeh et al. (2021) conducted a study in Iran and found that nurse-managers’ lower academic training, fear of losing jobs from higher level managers, and lack of leadership competencies are some of the organizational factors that create hesitancy in policy development involvement. Other organizational structure factors include nurse leaders’ minimal authority, inability of nursing organizations to adopt reforms and changes due to its conservative approach, and exclusion of nurses due to top-down policy decision-making (Hajizadeh et al., 2021). Further, institutions also create barriers for nurse managers to be engaged in policy making through heavy workload assignment, sustaining societal negative images of nurses’ involvement in policy making, and lack of transparency on the process of policy making (Hajizadeh et al., 2021).
A major systemic barrier for nurses’ participation in policy making was physician dominated health system (Acheampong et al., 2021; Asuquo, 2019; Hajizadeh et al., 2021; Juma et al., 2014) where nurses’ in policy making is not expected, unlike it is for physicians (Asuquo, 2019). The Iranian health system has a strong influence of physicians due to traditional power relations within the national policy development platform (Hajizadeh et al., 2021). Nurses are mostly represented within nursing practice settings such as frontline care whereas physicians are represented beyond their area of practice such as head of department, administrative directors, managers of programs, and head of provincial and district health offices (Asuquo, 2019; Juma et al., 2014). Asuquo (2019) claims that institutional research grants are often discussed in the higher arenas of decision making areas where physicians are present but nurses are often absent, and the translation is systematic exclusion of nurses in the policy making enterprise. This systematic domination of nurses by other disciplines such as medicine is a major factor in nurses and midwives’ marginal representation and invisibility in organizational and systemic policy making arenas.
4.6. Theme 3: Leadership as a pathway to involvement in policy development
This theme refers to the role of leadership in nurses’ and midwives’ engagement in policy development. Having nurses and midwives in leadership roles fosters their involvement in policy development was prevalent in five studies.
Leadership as a pathway to involvement in policy development can be achieved through strategic mentoring by those already in leadership roles. Asuquo (2019) states that nursing leadership is necessary for:
“…translating research evidence into practice as well as using research evidence to inform policy. The inclusion of nursing input in strategic decision making is fundamental to attaining and achieving health outcome as nurses are not just health stakeholders but qualified and experienced professionals that could assume a pivotal role in the health care system.” Asuquo (2019), p.1121
Asuquo (2019) further notes that research mentorship can be a way to bridge the individual and institutional gap where nurses learn the skills needed to become researchers, policy developers, and leaders of self and others. Similarly, Hajizadeh et al. (2021) asserts that access, communication, and collaboration of nurse leaders with key government officials and upstream managers can be advantageous for their participation in policy-making. In addition, upstream managers should also make an effort in implementing strategies to enhance nurse leaders’ participation in government and political affairs (Hajizadeh et al., 2021). This could be in the form of policymakers creating opportunities where nurse leaders can participate in policy making from the very beginning of the process (Hajizadeh et al., 2021; Kemp et al., 2018). This highlights a bi-directional approach whereby nurses reach out to other disciplines for mentorship support and others also become allies and advocates for nurses’ active participation in policy making arenas.
Organizations should also support nurses and provide clear frameworks to supervise or mentor nurses to encourage them to participate in policy discussions (Arries, 2006; Assegaai and Schneider, 2019; Hajizadeh et al., 2021). Assegaai and Schneider (2019) affirm that ward-based outreach team nurse leaders often have informal support processes in place but not a clear framework of the support needed. Supportive supervision from the organization for monitoring and supervision of the policy process is key in not only involving health professionals (including nurses) in policy decision-making but it is vital to maintain transparency as well (Hajizadeh et al., 2021). Other facilitators of policy involvement include promoting the culture of participatory management where employees including nurses take an active role in the decision-making process of the institution and the establishment of trust between policy makers and nurses/midwives and this can be achieved with a supportive and ambience organizational culture (Hajizadeh et al., 2021).
4.7. Theme 4: Promoting nurses and midwives’ involvement in policy development
The final theme refers to ways of fostering nurses and midwives’ involvement in policy development, and this was identified in seven studies. Nurses can be encouraged to meaningfully engage in policy development through several ways. These include research, creation of policy making opportunities, targeted professional development initiatives and guidelines, authentic engagement of frontline nurses and midwives in policy development work, better communication system (e.g., bottom-up approach, multidirectional), community of practice, equitable allocation of resources, nursing curricula content, closing the academic-practice divide and increasing interdisciplinary teamwork within the nursing process.
Nurses’ and midwives’ participation in the development of the policies that impact on health care delivery is a motivating factor. This can be achieved through creating opportunities for nurse and midwife involvement, empowering them with skills and engaging in a bottom-up approach in policy making. According to Juma et al. (2014), generating nursing evidence has the capacity to influence policy at local, national and international levels with nurses and midwives more involved in policy making. Nursing and midwifery leaders need to be promoted and motivated by creating opportunities where they can have hands-on experience in policy-making processes; this could offer nurses the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in policy leadership positions and to be more proactive in policy-making activities (Juma et al., 2014). Additionally, Makhuvha et al. (2007) asserts guidelines aimed to recognize and remunerate nurse educators along with empowering them with skills of problem solving and assertiveness; this can assist in enhancing the image of nursing and retain nursing professionals for policy formulation work. Apart from this, frontline nurses should also be consulted when developing policies to promote a bottom-up approach to policy making (Buys and Muller, 2000; Juma et al., 2014; Richter et al., 2013). Buys and Muller (2000) discuss the importance of two-way communication and professional development between nurse managers and the higher system of health services asserting that this can lead to greater power for both parties. Richter et al. (2013)’s research to strengthen nurses’ engagement in Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) policy development offered a bottom-up approach as a facilitator. The authors further elaborated that frontline nurses and managers were involved in a policy development process via workshops where they provided feedback, challenges, and gaps in the service delivery, and they were generating information which was then circulated to the national level decision makers (Richter et al., 2013). Kemp et al. (2018) also mentioned the importance of workshops where the Ugandan midwives had an opportunity to share space for exploration of ideas, reflection, and planning, and a safe community of practice area with levelling of the hierarchies. One of the midwives in the role of quality assurance manager expressed that the participant workshops with midwives were significant in the revision of national standards due to the feedback and revisions suggested (Kemp et al., 2018).
Impartiality in the distribution or allocation of resources is another way nurse managers can be involved in policy development (Hajizadeh et al., 2021). The inequitable distribution of resources such as human, monetary, and information to the various disciplines within the health workforce creates an environment of overrepresentation of some disciplines (e.g., physicians) and underrepresentation of others (e.g., nurses and midwives). This makes it challenging for nurses and midwives to be actively involved in policy development work. Thus, a fair and just resource allocation is vital to nurses and midwives’ participation in policy making.
Closing the academic-practice divide and increasing interdisciplinary teamwork within the nursing process is another way to foster nurses’ and midwives’ involvement in policy development. Nursing curricula need to integrate courses that offer skills and knowledge on working with health policy and politics (Hajizadeh et al., 2021; Juma et al., 2014). This can be in the form of either changes in content of curricular courses or in the form of in-service training but should include the processes and politics of policy making (Hajizadeh et al., 2021). Apart from this, a collaborative and cooperative relationship between nursing education institutions and hospital nurses is another facilitator that can strengthen policy in universities by including service nurses’ needs and engagement in policy making (Hajizadeh et al., 2021). This is important to close the academic-practice divide. In terms of the nursing process, an increment in team activity such as believing in each other for a shared goal can assist nurses to realize the importance of and the need for involvement in policy formulation (Hajizadeh et al., 2021).
5. Discussion
Ten qualitative research articles included in this systematic review provide a unified overview of nurses’ and midwives’ involvement in policy development in LMICs. All studies demonstrated that nurses and midwives continue to be perceived as minimally involved in policy development. However, what was unique about the qualitative research findings from all the articles was how the unveiling of nurses and nurse midwives’ circumstances led to improved consideration of the reasons for exclusion as well as potential solutions to include nurses and nurse midwives in policy development.
Nurses and midwives have the potential to make significant contributions in closing the “know-do” gap through uptake of evidence into policies and practice; however, the findings of this review suggest that, indeed nurses and midwives in LMICs are marginally represented at policy development tables and this underrepresentation is perpetuated by issues including research and policy literacy, subordination of nurses and midwives within hierarchical healthcare institutions and systems, and lack of nurses in leadership. These findings are supported by a body of evidence and authoritative sources and international bodies’ who have been calling for greater midwifery and nursing involvement in policy and decision making, locally nationally and internationally (World Health Organization, 2020). Social and institutional discourses regarding nursing and the health care system continue to perpetuate beliefs and stereotypes about nursing and subsequently create hierarchies that marginalize and exclude nurses and midwives from decision making tables as well as policy development (Arries, 2006). This historical and chronic problem continues to impact decisions and practices within the healthcare system yet there is growing recognition that nurses’ and midwives’ roles and responsibilities should include policy making (World Health Organization, 2020). Barriers to nurses’ and midwives’ authentic and full engagement in health and public policy decision making are impetus for more targeted action to change these realities. This review has highlighted some examples of how nurses and midwives are marginalized in policy making arenas and the multiple levels (i.e., individual, institutional and system) interconnected and overlapping contributing issues to this exclusion.
5.1. Research and policy literacy
The first issue that is associated with nurses and midwives’ underrepresentation in policy development is research and policy literature, which refers to the ability to identify and understand research, political, and policy knowledge (Etowa et al., 2020). Evidence-based policy development is anchored in relevant systematically investigated information and knowledge. Critical understanding of research and policy is required to enable nurses and midwives in various roles within healthcare to understand, critique and participate in policy making. Nurses and midwives have a need for both the technical research knowledge and practical skills of navigating the politics and policy making terrains within their practice contexts. While nurses and midwives are well-positioned to play a leading role in improving healthcare in LMICs, their potential contribution and meaningful engagement in health policy development processes are constrained by several factors, including but not limited to, a lack of research training and mentoring, limited prior experience with knowledge translation or with dialogue engagement with policy makers. As a result, nurses have not historically been involved in the development of health system policies, despite the impact that such policies have on their practice and care provision.
A key attribute of policy influence is knowledge (Bianco, 2001) and knowledge is power (Etowa et al., 2020) and power is the ability to achieve goals and influence others (Arabi et al., 2014). Knowledge is an essential component of nurses and midwives’ abilities to actively analyse organizational and systemic processes necessary for effective healthcare service delivery (Arabi et al., 2014). Nurses are knowledgeable about nursing issues and can play an instrumental role in development, implementation, and evaluation of governmental healthcare policies (Hewison, 2008). This knowledge prepares them for policy competence, which is the level of policy influence when “they can direct their organizations in response to the challenges and opportunities related to political situations and also make policies which have desirable effects on their organizations” (Arabi et al., 2014, p. 318). These authors further assert that:
“nurses’ policy influence is nurses’ ability in influencing decisions and affairs related to health through political knowledge, effective communication, and collaboration with other members of the health team, which results in the improvement of nurses’ job environment and increases patient outcomes. Nurses’ influence in health polices protects patient safety, increases quality of care, and facilitates their access to the required resources and promotes quality health care (Arabi et al., 2014, p. 319).
Being knowledgeable also equips nurses with the tools to advocate for changes. Arabi et al. (2014) identified the advocacy role of nurses as an integral part of policy development processes. Without nurse and midwife involvement in political and policy processes, the advocating role of nurses and midwives will be ineffective (Boswell et al., 2005). These activities can empower nurses and midwives with the knowledge that can influence decision makers, they need to understand the “open system” they work in and the many factors that influence the system (Arabi et al., 2014). As advocates, nurses need to ensure that all influencers of decision makers are well understood and considered.
5.2. Subordination of nurses and midwives within hierarchical healthcare institutions and systems
Findings demonstrating a ‘top-down approach’ is typical in LMICs with nurses being employed at ‘lower levels’, demonstrating the hierarchy of nurses in the health care system. The subordination of nurses and midwives is a healthcare cultural issue, where nurses and midwives are seen as powerless and without influence (Varghese et al., 2018). Many nurses and nurse midwives themselves acknowledged that they did not have the required knowledge or skills to be involved in policy development. Across individual, organization, and systematic levels, nurses and midwives are seen in a subservient role, which is compounded by traditional gender roles and patriarchal expectations (Anders, 2021; Jivraj Shariff, 2015). These systemic relations of power were perpetuated by the practices and expectations of nurses and physicians. Nurses were expected to be frontline and to follow orders, usually only invited to join policy development teams after major decisions were made (Asuquo, 2019; Juma et al., 2014). Medical involvement in policy-making tends to focus on enhancing the medical professional status of those in high-level positions or demonstrating power at the expense of other professions and colleagues.
A major systematic barrier for nurses’ participation in policy making was the physician dominated health system (Asuquo, 2019; Hajizadeh et al., 2021; Juma et al., 2014) and lack of expectation of nurses and midwives to be involved in policy development (Asuquo, 2019). When nurses were invited to participate in policy development, their roles continued to be more menial tasks and implementers, rather than involved in the initial discussions. It will be important for systematic changes to be implemented to help facilitate nurses’ involvement in policy development, such as the provision of resources, budgets, and time. As identified by others, the image of nurses and midwives as followers rather than leaders is perpetuated by the current system as well as the media (Arabi et al., 2014), which needs to be modified.
Nurses and midwives being involved in policy development can enhance patient safety and quality of care. As nurses and midwives are the front line workers, they have a major impact on the patient experience and the quality of care they recieve as well as being knowledgeable in needs at the bedside. It is essential to have a team approach to ensure high quality of care for patients. Nurse and midwife involvement in policy development can not only benefit themselves (Macdonald et al., 2015) but also other health professionals (Green and Johnson., 2015) through enhanced collaboration and teamwork, bringing together multiple perspectives to enact positive policy changes.
5.3. Lack of nurses in leadership
Nurses and nurse midwives need to be included in policy development by including them from the beginning of policy development initiatives (Hajizadeh et al., 2021; Juma et al., 2014). While mentoring and supervising nurses individually or connecting with the government to build more trusting relationships is important, for significant change to occur, more needs to be done. For example, nurses and health care professionals need to attend to the obvious social and institutional stereotypes of nurses that construct hierarchies that falsely perpetuate nurses as having less knowledge and skills. This perception creates a gap of nurses in leadership positions as they are often passed over for such positions, despite making up the majority of frontline workers (Anders, 2021).
On the other hand, having nurses and midwives in leadership roles fosters their involvement in policy development. It will be important to create opportunities and have others who have more privilege to support and create room for nurses and midwives who have been trying to be involved for decades. As mentioned by Hajizadeh et al. (2021) upstream managers could play a role through implementing strategies to enhance nurse leaders’ participation in government and political affairs, thus creating a bi-directional approach whereby nurses reach out to other disciplines for mentorship support and those in higher positions act as allies and advocates for nurses’ active participation in policy development. Creating a healthy work environment where nurses and midwives feel empowered to be involved in policy development is critical to their involvement, meaning leaders and administrators play an important role in ensuring such an environment exists (Jivraj Shariff, 2015).
Nurses and midwives make ideal policy advocates given their engagement with patients and other healthcare professionals, making them experts in their clinical area of practice (Anders, 2021). Including policy development skills in nursing education and consulting with nurses at the beginning of policy development may help; however, to make significant changes, nurses need to be shown more respect and be included as equal members in the health care system. It is essential to remove barriers to nurses and midwives in places of leadership, including the understaffing and overburdening of frontline workers (Varghese et al., 2018).
5.4. Implications
These findings have implications for changes in various dimensions of health and nursing practice including education, research, and policy and practice.
5.5. Education implementations
To enhance the involvement of nurses and midwives in policy development, there needs to be systematic changes and opportunities to create leadership development. Specifically, there needs to be a strong emphasis on training for nurses and midwives that support transformation of nurses’ learning and professional development to engage in policy development in LMICs (Anders, 2021; Boswell et al., 2005). Education can take the form of revising curricula content during the education of upcoming nurses and midwives but also through professional development workshops for nurses who are already in the field to ensure that nurses and midwives understand their potential role in policy development and the general process (AbuAlRub and Foudeh, 2017). Beyond education in policy development, continual training in leadership skills, critical thinking, and conflict management is important to ensure that nurses have the leadership skills necessary to actively engage as necessary (AbuAlRub and Foudeh, 2017). Additionally, there needs to be training for upper level management and physicians about the inclusion of nurses in policy development in order to work on changing the systematic barriers that limit nurses and midwives’ involvement in policy development.
5.6. Research implication
Considering the lack of research on midwives’ involvement in policy making, with only one study focusing on midwives, one research implication is to further explore the experience of midwives in regard to their contribution and involvement in policy. Additionally, it will be important to continue to investigate nurses’ and midwives’ experiences of involvement in policy development to monitor changes as nurses and midwives become more involved in policy development in LMICS.
5.7. Policy and practice implications
At the individual level, awareness around stereotypes of nurses and midwives needs to be acknowledged by all healthcare providers and policy makers. Those with privilege and therefore more power need to support and create room for nurses and nurse midwives to be involved in policy development. At the system level, significant changes are needed to restructure how decisions are made. Systemic relations of power need to be negotiated and challenged to prevent the perpetuation of stereotypical expectations of nurses and physicians.
5.8. Limitations
Limitations of this review include a focus that is more on nurses than midwives, as only one study included midwives. Therefore, the findings of this qualitative systematic review may not be as representative for midwives as much as it is for nurses. The review had some deviations from the published protocol; however, these deviations did not change the focus of the review and is argued to have strengthened the qualitative synthesis approach. All deviations are noted in the methods section. Finally, due to the low number of studies, no comparison across LMICs was possible, which limits the ability for comparison of successful involvement of nurses and midwives in policy development in certain LMICs compared to others which could act as a guide for other countries.
6. Conclusion
From this review, it is clear that nurses’ and midwives’ involvement in policy development in LMICs is minimal. Underrepresentation of nurses and midwives in policy development is perpetuated by issues including research and policy literacy, subordination of nurses and midwives within hierarchical healthcare institutions and systems, and lack of nurses in leadership. There needs to be considerable shifts and modifications at the individual, organizational, and system levels to enhance the engagement of nurses and midwives substantially in policy development in LMICs. Fig. 1
Contributions of the Paper
What is already known?
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Nurses are the largest group of health care workers in the global workforce
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Nurses are knowledgeable about quality and equity of care issues, yet little is known of the experiences of nurses and midwives in policy development in LMICs.
What this paper adds?
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Involvement of nurses in policy development occurs across multiple levels: individual, institutional, and systemic
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Nurses and midwives are marginally represented in policy arenas
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Underrepresentation of nurses and midwives in policy development is perpetuated by subordination of nurses and midwives within hierarchical healthcare institutions and systems
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Study Design: JE, MA & AV
Data screening: JE, MA, AV, DI, AG, CN, & GA
Data extraction: JE, MA, AV, DI, AG, CN, & GA
Data synthesis/analysis: JE, MA, AV, DI, GA & BT
Manuscript writing: JE, MA, AV, DI, GA, BT, & JD
Critical revisions for important intellectual content: JE, MA & AV
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Ethical approval
The systematic review did not require an ethics approval due to the review not requiring participation of human subjects.
Data availability statement
Data used in this manuscript is available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. No conflict of interest has been declared by the author(s).
Appendix. Supplementary materials
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